Solar Energy: Exploring Technology, Investments and Public Policy for Solar and other Green Alternat

Abstract

Solar energy seems like such a logical choice for alternative energy, so why is it not more prevalent, especially in sunny Florida? The occasional solar energy cell can be seen on houses as one drives by, but that seems to be the exception rather than the rule. What is hindering the use of solar energy, if that is indeed the case? Preliminary research with alternative energies, like solar and wind energies for example, indicate that one obstacle is the storage of the energies for use during times when the sun doesn’t shine or the wind doesn’t blow. The development of battery technologies that are safe and effective in the storage of large amounts of energy for prolonged periods of time is one major obstacle.

What programs are available, and to whom, to help usher in an era of alternative energy? From the federal level to the state and local levels, it is important to understand the ways that the people can access alternative forms of energy. The US seems to be somewhat lacking in solar policies compared to Europe, what are some potential factors that influence change, or lack thereof. The discussion of policies that make exploration of new alternative energies plausible for people of varying economic status is vital in understanding the time frame that Americans can expect to see these energies used consistently.

Keywords: Solar Energy, Public Policy, Technology, Investments, US

The Solar Energy Alternative

Solar energy seems like a reasonable alternative to fossil fuel dependency yet solar cells are not topping the majority buildings yet, or powering cars. There are factors to consider like cost effectiveness, accessibility, energy storage and of course public policies. The solar industry is growing exponentially each year and policy makers are taking notice (Mansour 2018). Americans are seeing some division among states in terms of where there alternative energy priorities lie. That is not to say that the states that do not seem to agree with solar energy are not working toward clean energy alternatives. To the contrary, many states and countries are setting ambitious goals for the eventual replacement of fossil fuels with green energy sources like solar energy.

Solar Energy and Public Policy in the US

In January 2013 President Obama decisively stated in his second inaugural address that “the path towards sustainable energy sources will be long and sometimes difficult” yet it our responsibility to ourselves and future generations. Not long after President Trump took office, climate change and clean energy disappeared from the White House website. A new page titled "An American First Energy Policy Plan" states that Trump and his team will move to eliminate climate regulations and boost coal, oil, and gas production (Temple 2017). Changes in policies from one president to the next certainly can have an impact on the prevalence of alternative energy source use, but that is not to say that a single president is to blame for the use, or lack thereof, solar energy. They people of America do seem want solar energy and other clean alternatives (Bolsen et. Al 2016). President Trump appears to be looking favorably to on solar power, specifically concentrated solar power, with $72 million worth of funding for concentrated solar power that may bring it to the forefront of energy production once and for all.

Since 2008 US solar installations have grown seventeen-fold from 1.2 gigawatts (GW) to an estimated 30 GW today (Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy 2018). The prefix mega means million (1,000,000) and the prefix giga means billion (1,000,000,000). So a gigawatt hour is a thousand megawatt hours. Solar jobs have increased 123% since the end of 2010 and solar panels on just .6 percent of the nation’s land could supply enough electricity for the whole country (Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy 2018) Solar panels do not have to take up valuable land either, there is always the option of using rooftops.

Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) uses mirrors to focus the sunlight and convert it to heat which converts to steam that drives a turbine and generates power. This form of solar energy production had great potential for seven southwestern states that could supply more than four times the current US annual electricity demand (Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy 2018). The primary complaint with CSP is that is it more complex and expensive than the standard photovoltaic cells. However, as the mirrors work to centralize sunlight from large fields of mirrors into one power, the heated oil or molten salt at its center also doubles as an energy storage platform that could potentially generate electricity twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week (Casey 2018). The current issue at hand is the molten focal point is just not high enough in temperature needed to store energy in thermochemical bond. Three years of constructions and five years to work on fine tuning the technology means that it will some time before American’s know if this investment will pay off.

This year also began with an announcement that a 30 percent tariff would be imposed on foreign made solar components (SEIA 2018). Prices dropped by 52% in the five years prior to 2017, the tariff has leveled off the dropping prices for panels (Mansour 2018). The tariffs have also caused some companies to cancel, or freeze, billion dollar projects that would have normally continued without the tariffs (Mansour 2018). The question often asked here is, “Why don’t Americans just make their own solar materials?” Of course, America is producing materials but the economies of scale are such that Americans make 10 to 50 megawatts per facility where China Thailand, Malaysia etc. factories s are producing gigawatts of cells and panels (Mansour 2018). American companies find it challenging to get the level of investment needed to produce on comparable levels to those overseas. However, there are many changes being made on the state levels which are encouraging to the solar industry. In the US, anticipated increase in demand for solar energy is predicted to upsurge total US solar sales 14 percent over the next four years due to the changes in California alone (SEIA 2018). Many states have goals to have large percentages of their energy coming from alternative/renewable alternatives.

While several states have shown progress in the development of support for solar there have been some setbacks as well. Net metering (a.k.a. Net Energy Metering or NEM) allows customer of solar companies to sell excess energy gathered by their solar devices back to the grid to reduce bills (SEIA 2018). Customers are essentially billed only for their net consumption where NEM is permitted. This policy has proven to be critical for the solar industry in the US. Unfortunately, some utilities interpret NEM more with loss of revenue than with fairly charging customers. The elimination of net metering in multiple states is yet another obstacle for the industry to overcome. Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Michigan are all facing bills that will eliminate net metering. Yet, Connecticut is still looking to make 40 percent of its energy from renewable energy sources by 2030 (SEIA 2018). Also, although Michigan is eliminating net metering they are trying a replacement approach which would reward solar users. The obstacles are not insurmountable. “States are expanding their policy and rate design discussions from solar to the broader set of distributed energy resources,” noted Autumn Proudlove, lead report author and Senior Manager of Policy Research at NCCETC. “Increasingly, states are undertaking value of studies and considering rate designs for customers with solar, energy storage, electric vehicles, and other DERs” (NCCETC 2018).

California

As of May 9, 2018 California Energy Commission (CEC) mandated most new homes must have rooftop solar starting in 2020, which is part of the Building Energy Code (Gheorghiu 2018). The code also has incentives for energy storage in the state which means that new homes with greater storage would have lower solar system size requirements, making them more affordable. California has also made a commitment to sourcing 50 percent of its electricity from renewable resources by 2030 (Brown 2018). CEC speculates a net $1.7 billion savings on energy bills for the state. "The combination of rooftop solar and the option to add energy storage systems as an efficiency compliance credit provides builders with an attractive, cost-effective option to fully electrify homes," says Abigail Ross Hopper, president and CEO of the Solar Energy Industries Association (Gheorghiu 2018).

Florida

Sunrun, based in San Francisco, is a major player in the solar industry. They began selling solar systems in Florida last year, but there was legislative red tape to overcome. Third party electricity sales are not permitted in Florida, which impacts the leasing of equipment and typically sales for Sunrun are made from these leases. Sunrun found a loophole though by stating that the lease payments are fixed and not based on the electricity the systems generate. The Public Service Commission issued a statement in late April declaring that residential solar leases are allowed (Walton 2018). Florida is now leading solar growth in 2018 (Eckhouse and Martin 2018). Now the company can offer more appealing terms, and a more open market, for rooftop solar equipment. When regulators agreed that the lease didn’t constitute the sale of electricity it was a big win for solar in Florida.

Florida will also see a measure to strike property taxes on solar panels installed both commercially and industrially (Walton 2018). This is a very encouraging change because those individuals and businesses that would like to pursue solar energy may not have to come out of pocket for expensive solar systems and they will also see a break on their taxes. This will make solar even more appealing to invest in.

New Jersey

The State of New Jersey passed a RPS (Renewable Portfolio Standard) which requires the 35 percent of the state’s power to be from renewables by 2025 and 50 percent by 2030. Interestingly, the bill specifies that the five percent must be from solar by 2021, which makes it among the most ambitious policies in the country (SEIA 2018). Governor Murphy shows support for the bill is expected to sign.

Utah

In late March, Governor Gary Herber signed two policies into law. The first policy offers a $1600 tax credit for residential solar customers for two more years, but will be waning over the course of three years after 2021. The other bill signed into law has to do with consumer protection and requires solar companies to give residential customers a statement of disclosure to ensure understanding of their contracts. Both of these policies are encouraging because they are showing interest in providing incentives for solar use and protecting solar customers.

The 2018 Congressional Clean Energy Expo and Policy Forum

This expo gathered 35 businesses, trade associations, and government agencies for the purpose of examining renewable energy technologies. The expo was cohosted by the House Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency Caucus. Events like this are vital for the distribution of information and the planning of alternative energies in the future. Forums such as this one allows the key players of major organizations to share information with each other and the American people pertinent information. The Vice President (Federal Affairs) of the Solar Energy Industries Association Christopher Mansour spoke at the expo and discussed the supply chain involved in the solar industry in America. He states that there are currently $250.000 Americans working in the solar industry. In 2017 solar was 30 percent of all new generated energy in the US (Mansour 2018). In the first quarter of 2018 solar was 50 percent of all new electrical generating capacity in the US (Mansour 2018). Solar is a good buy for many utilities across the nation because the cost of the fuel is not variable. The fuel cost is zero, of course. Utilities are going with renewable and namely solar for this reason. There is currently 56 gigawatts generated in the US and is looking to double that in the next five years (Mansour 2018).. There are 9000 companies across the country working in solar but 85 percent of them are businesses with twenty people or less. Small business seem to be driving the industry (Mansour 2018).

The N.C. Clean Energy Technology Center (NCCETC) released it first quarter edition of the 50 States of Solar in April 2018. These publications provide legislative negotiations and actions on distributed solar policy, particularly focused on net metering, solar value, community solar, and residential fixed charges, residential demand, third party ownership and utility led rooftop solar programs (NCU 2018). NCCETC reported that 40 states and Washington DC took some variety of solar policy action in the first quarter of 2018 specifically: (see also figure 2)

- 49 utility requests in 26 states to increase monthly fixed charges or minimum bills on all residential customers by at least 10% (pending or decided).

- 25 states plus D.C. considered or enacted changes to net metering policies.

- 17 states plus D.C. formally examined or resolved to examine some element of the value of distributed generation or the costs and benefits of net metering.

- 15 states took policy action on community solar.

- 10 utility requests in 5 states plus D.C. to add new or increase existing charges specific to rooftop solar customers were pending or decided.

- 4 states had action on utility-owned rooftop solar policies or programs.

- 3 states plus D.C. had policy action on third-party solar ownership laws or regulations.

(N.C. University, N.C. Clean Energy Technology Center 2018)

Issues and Possible Resolutions

Intermittent Sunlight

Solar energy is clean and reliable, but it is intermittent. Solar cells only generate power while the sun shines on those cells. While it is a great alternative for habitually sunny areas, cities like Seattle or London that see a lot of rainy days would have to collect two days’ worth of energy for every one day of sun, and unfortunately solar technology is not capable of that yet (Lee 2015). Basically, not every geographic area lends itself to solar energy collection places like the rainforest or the arctic see even less sun than the aforementioned rainy cities.

Energy Loss over Long Distances

Another issue is the loss of energy over long stretches of power lines. Reviewing Ohm’s law from high school physics Losses scale with the square of a wire’s current. That square factor means a small increase in current can cause a large increase in losses (Wirf’s Brock 2015). Approximately 6% – 2% of the electricity is lost in transmission and 4% in distribution – or 69 trillion Btus in the U.S. in 2013 (Energy Information Administration 2013).

This discussion of loss of energy transmission over distance begs the question of technological advancement in the facet of wireless energy transmission. Of course, at this point scientists are not able to transmit energy over long distance. However, researchers at Stanford University are working with what was once Nikola Tesla’s vision of wireless energy transmission (Lant 2017). They have successfully transferred electricity using a nonlinear parity–time-symmetric circuit

Energy Storage

Perhaps the most obvious hurdle facing the industry is solar energy storage. The inexpensive battery packages have durability and dependability issues and the high quality batteries are extremely expensive. In 2013 the large scale lithium ion batteries were approximately $1000/kWh in price (Lee 2015). There have been advancements though, Tesla presented a new battery pack in 2015 for small consumers and large companies alike and those are a more palatable price of around $350/kWh, and prices are expect to continue to come down. This topic is explored in more detail in the section titled Advances in Energy Storage below.

Energy and Technology Requirements

Electricity usage during the day is typically constant, spikes when workers arrive back at their home after work and drops to nearly no usage after the population is generally sleeping. The average American household uses 1kW per hour (Lee 2015). For usage of electricity in the nighttime, the energy needs to be captured during the day and stored, meaning that the daytime demand must be met and also store enough for use at night as well. The average consumer rated solar panel can generate 10 watts per hour per square foot, therefore one would require 100 square feet of solar paneling (Lee 2015). if one is to make the assumption the sun is shining all day (it doesn’t). If the amount of acceptable sunlight drops to six hours, for example, that square footage needed rises to 400 sq. ft, with paneling rated at 4kW. With an average of $5 per watt, a 4kW system runs about $30,500 (Lee 2015). This is also assuming that there is enough land/area to put these cells. It just isn’t quite feasible for many people, not yet.

There are innovations underway like spray on solar cells technology. Scientists at the University of Sheffield in the United Kingdom developed perovskite based solar cells which are created using a spray on process (Hughes 2014). Perovskite cells are naturally occurring crystalline structures that are used as the light absorbing layer, and could possibly surpass traditional cells at a lower price when compared to traditional silicon based photovoltaic cells. Although still in its infancy, and needing years of development, the perovskite solar cell may become significant to global energy.

The Integration Challenge

Integrating solar energy into our current, dated energy grid is yet another challenge. The solar energy infrastructure which was based on fossils fuels must be integrated to become more solar compatible. Peripheral costs, for example the conversion of gas stations to charging stations must be considered aswell. Lucas Mearian, senior Computerworld Reporter wrote an article in 2015, “MIT says solar power fields with trillions of watts of capacity are on the way, but the US government policies need to be more supportive of the industry.” Mearian goes on to suggest, in his article, that the main goal of US solar policy should include preparations for increasing the scale of solar in the coming decades.

Nuclear Vs. Solar

When discussing alternative energies to fossil fuels it is important to mention the nuclear option. Nuclear energy, although it does not produce the emissions that fossil fuels do, carries its own detriments. Fukushima is only the most recent reminder that, as much as scientists would like to believe that Nuclear is green, it carries with it some very real, very intense consequences if unintended variables present themselves. How can potentially radiating our oceans for future generations be a long term viable option? Once solar energy technology reaches a point, which is rapidly approaching, where sufficient energy can be harnessed and stored, nuclear energy must fall out of favor. Nuclear power plants rely on stable energy grid in times of emergency. The aged energy grid is a major problem both for adding additional nuclear plants, and for supporting current plants in a time of emergency. Unlike nuclear energy’s dependence on the aged grid, solar may help individual and corporate consumers liberate themselves from the energy grid.

Successes, Failures and Outlook for Solar

Solar energy technology is advancing quickly across the planet. Countries are exploring alternative energy sources with success, yet there is much room for improvement. One of the goals of alternative energy is the reduction of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and that is just not happening yet. Energy storage options also need to see improvement, but there are policies in place working to see that happen under Trumps administration. Policies that support research into new technology need continued support for technological advancement and the aging energy grid requires attention.

Failure to Reduce Carbon Dioxide Emissions

Well over $1.7 trillion has been spent on installing wind and solar devices in the recent years with the goal of reducing CO2 emissions (Mearns 2014). Since 1995 low carbon sources of energy (Renewables, nuclear, and hydro) small share of consumption is low. Carbon Dioxide emissions have not been reduced. To the contrary CO2 emissions set a new record this year (Rapier 2018). In April 2018 the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii recorded an average concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide above 410 PPM (parts per million) which is the highest monthly average in recorded history, and with ice records, the highest in 800,00 years (Rapier 2018) (see figure 6). When is the appropriate time for concern? This appears to be an utter failure. The growth of other renewables does not make up for the decline in nuclear power (Mearns 2014) (Figure 5).

Solar is Just One Part of the Answer

With the growth that has occurred in the solar industry, and the predicted exponential growth that is expected, there could be success in the future of solar. It is important to take into consideration that solar is just one facet of the renewable and greener options looking to replace fossil fuels. Wind Power, hydroelectric, and geothermal power are also viable options as we have seen in Costa Rica where hydroelectric power and geothermal energy contributed to 75 days of energy without fossil fuels (Costa Rican Electricity Institute 2015).

In science, failure repeats itself until finally a breakthrough, a success, and that success has the potential to change everything. The failure to deplete the rising carbon dioxide levels is not a necessarily a failure in policy or in solar energy it is the result of a global equation the United States iss not solely responsible for. Developing countries are now producing more than developed country can save in emissions, as with most things in this era the problem is a global one. The measure that are being taken in the solar industry are moving in the right direction, albeit too slowly for the taste of many who want to see emission figures reducing not increasing. Still, that is not to say that the story ends, rather it is just the beginning.

Advancements in Energy Storage Technology are here

A technological advance, like Perovskite, or maybe something even cheaper and easier to produce could change the planet. The Search for the Super Battery hosted David Pogue features an interview with Mike Zimmerman who is a Tufts University professor, and material scientist, who has developed an intriguing battery design that may be the answer to the problems of energy storage for solar and other renewables. Lithium-ion batteries are the standard used today but the electrolytes that allow the battery to charge, discharge, and recharge again are inherently dangerous if punctured or heated (because it is highly flammable).

Zimmerman has created an intriguing design, a safer design, which replaces the liquid electrolyte and separator inside the battery with a special plastic of his making which creates a completely solid battery, no more flammable fluids. The plastic is even flame retardant as opposed to the highly flammable electrolytes. In addition, although the plastic is solid it allows the lithium ions to pass through it at comparable, if not exceeding, rate to the current electrolyte fluid. The plastic also prevents dendrites from shorting out the battery, a common issue that current batteries face. There is yet another reason that this battery is superior, the plastic allows the battery to use lithium metal instead, and this has the potential to double the battery’s energy density. This type of technology could change the energy storage game in the coming years since it can be scaled up to meet the needs of large facilities and small phone batteries alike.

Policies Need to Make Research into Technology a Priority

Public policies in the United States must allow for research and funding for projects like MIT’s Perovskite spray solar materials or Zimmerman’s unique battery. The “eureka” moment in solar energy may have already presented itself in a laboratory or research institution but is yet to develop to the level needed to meet the needs of the country, of the planet. Public policy is inching in the right direction. Goals of replacing fossil fuels with alternative and renewable energy are in place but there must be the scientific progress too to see it truly flourish in the rapidly closing window of time. At the turn of this century scientists announced that the planet is potentially facing another mass extinction. Robin Freeman, at the Zoological Society of London, UK, was part of a team that surveyed 3000 species and the results indicated that 50 percent of wildlife has been lost since 1970 (Carrington 2017). Public policy must act with the appropriate urgency.

Analyzing Political Communication and Behavior

Dr. Bolsen, associate professor of political science and director of the Zokius Research Collaborative at Georgia State University, political communication and behavior (Bolsen et al. 2016). Dr. Bolsen hopes to spur investment and development in solar energy technology advancement. He is also interested in the impact of policies and how they affect the development of solar energy. His article discusses a study using surveys to determine the public’s receptivity to solar energy. In the surveys studied there was strong support for the use of solar energy. This article looks at three key perspectives, those of citizens, those of policy makers and those of scientists making it well adapted for the research question at hand. There is support for the transition away from fossil fuels but petro companies fight hard to maintain their dominance in the market. Perhaps the answer isn’t so much providing incentives for use of solar as much as it is making it more expensive and tedious to use the fossil fuels.

A comparison between the progression of public policy in Europe and the United States demonstrated the need to become more aggressive with policies that will support solar energy (Elliot 2013). The main question addressed is why that US has not seen public policies like those seen in Europe. Structural, cultural, and generational perspectives are discussed to help provide an understanding of the factures that impact solar energy policies, investments, and change.

To Conclude

This era is crucial in the sustainability of resources and the development of technology that will continue to sustain the planet and its inhabitants. Public policy in the area of alternative energy has ushered forth many positive changes on the local, state, and federal level. These changes must continue with specific attention on expediting the transition from fossil fuels to clean energy alternatives. That required transition will take time, energy and a lot of funding but it is approaching closer each and every year.

The predicted growth of solar energy and other green alternatives is very encouraging. With so many levels of policy makers working toward this common goal of clean sustainability the future of solar energy should be bright and productive. California, Florida, New Jersey and Utah are a guiding light in the US and countries such as France and Germany are global leaders determined to make a difference on a planetary scale.

References

Bolsen, T., Druckman, J., Cook, F. (2016) Public Policy challenges to scientific innovation on solar energy. Chem 1, 515-519. October 13, 2016. Retrieved from http://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu/~jnd260/pub/Bolsen%20et%20al%20Solar%20Energy.pdf

Brown, G. Getting 100% Renewable Energy: An Interview with David Hochschild of the California Energy Commission. Retrieved from https://blog.aurorasolar.com/getting-to-100-percent-renewables-an-interview-with-david-hochschild/

Casey, T. (2018) Concentrating Solar Power Gets A $72 Million “Never Give Up, Never Surrender” Moment. Retrieved from https://cleantechnica.com/2018/05/16/concentrating-solar-power-gets-a-72-million-never-give-up-never-surrender-moment/

Carrington, D. (2017) Earth's sixth mass extinction event under way, scientists warn. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/jul/10/earths-sixth-mass-extinction-event-already-underway-scientists-warn

Eckhouse, B. and Martin, C. (2018) Sunshine State Is Set to Get More Solar After Florida Ruling. Retrieved from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-04-20/sunshine-state-to-get-more-rooftop-solar-as-florida-eases-rule

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Mearian, L. (2015) MIT says solar power fields with trillions of watts of capacity are on the way. Retrieved from https://www.computerworld.com/article/2919134/sustainable-it/mit-says-solar-power-fields-with-trillions-of-watts-of-capacity-are-on-the-way.html

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Figures

Figure 1. Source Solar Energy Industries Association

(Eckhouse and Martin 2018)

Figure 2. NCCETC (N.C. Clean Energy Technology Center)

https://nccleantech.ncsu.edu/the-50-states-of-solar-report-40-states-and-d-c-took-action-on-distributed-solar-policy-and-rate-design-during-q1-2018/

Figure 3. NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory shoes the best research cell efficiencies in percentage over years.

Figure 4. Nuclear, Hydro and Other Renewables (mainly wind and solar) expressed as % of total global energy consumption. The combined low carbon share reached 13.1% in 1995. In 2013 it was 13.3%. From this chart it is easy to see that Other Renewables have simply compensated for the decline in nuclear power a point made more clear in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Nuclear and Other Renewables as a percentage of total global energy consumption. Nuclear contribution peaked in 2001 and the decline in nuclear since then has not been fully compensated by the rapid expansion of renewables.

Figure 6. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2018

Figure 7. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America

Figure 8. The the average percent of electricity lost during transmission and distribution, by state, from 1990 to 2013. With the exception of Idaho, the states with the lowest losses are all rural, and the states with the highest losses are all densely populated (Wirfs-Brock 2015)